On average, children from working-class families in Germany take six generations to climb the social ladder and reach the country's mediocre revenue. In the Danish society, it only takes two generations. Ergo, the social background of a child has a big impact on its prospective educational opportunities and later living. According to their origin, children from low-class families usually have a harder time to reach a social advancement in their rite of passage into adulthood. This is something that Anna had to deal with. Nowadays being a grown-up woman from Northern Germany, she was facing the same difficulties that children from non-academic families often deal with. With both her parents not having a higher academic education, she has always been affected by her extraction. Anna is only one example, but her struggles stand for structural failure in German society.

The change of a child's social, economic or cultural status in its development to the adult life is known under the term of social mobility. The ascension of children from working-class families in the social system is called upward mobility, whereas the opposite dynamic – that the offspring of upper-class families transfer to a lower level of the society – is known as downward mobility. An international study shows that while the level of social mobility is high in most Nordic countries like Iceland, Sweden, Denmark or Finland, it is rather low in central European countries like Germany, Hungary, France or Poland. But how can the comparatively low social mobility in Germany be explained?

Low social mobility can have many reasons and many consequences. The lack of movement between social classes in Germany is often depicted as a problem that revolves around the origin and social background of a child, an unequal infantile education, little investments in the educational system and a general inequality of opportunities. With 4,2 percent of its GDP spent on education in 2014, Germany lies underneath the OECD average of 5,2 percent and resides under Denmark that spent around 6,5 percent for schools and universities. Besides, the low fluidity is assigned to unequal distribution and unsuccessful reallocation of financial resources, like taxes or the unemployment benefit Hartz4, leads to a high-income inequality and an increasing gap between poverty and wealth. Possible solutions that are discussed in the public debate mainly focus on the establishment of all-day kindergartens that include educational programs, a change of the welfare- and tax system as well as further investments in the education sector and the governmental support of underprivileged groups.

However, while the commonly discussed aspects of the low social mobility in Germany are not to be neglected in the debate, the striking impact of the German school system is barely ever mentioned in the framework. The educational system in Germany is characterized by early segregation into a multi-unit school system after primary school. This separation into higher secondary education strengthens the cementation and rigidity of social classes, as there is still a remaining inequality in the access to education between different socio-economic groups. A child's prior success in primary school and its parents' decision on which secondary education to attend might have a high influence on its later change of the economic, cultural and social status. Thus, the early segregation reinforces the classification into lower and higher social classes and hinders children from working-class or socio-economically disadvantaged families to climb the social ladder, which in turn leads to marginal social mobility. In contrast, kids from high-income upper-class families are more likely to follow similar positions as their parents – the risk of a downswing from earning good money is exceptionally low in Germany.

The German multi-unit school system is still based on foundations that were settled after the end of the second world war. Since then, each of the sixteen federal states has its own responsibility for the education policy – due to the "Kulturhoheit" (cultural sovereignty) that is enshrined in the German constitution. Thus, each state and all provincial governments have varying school regulations, for instance on the curriculum, the marking system and the number of school years. The lack of unitary adaptions has led to rigidity and inflexibility in the fragmented German school systems. Therefore, it is hard to generalize all features of the education structure. What is evident in all states though is the early segregation of children after primary school, based on their school performances and expected accomplishments.

Still, today, when a child in Germany is nine or ten years old, one of the most important decisions of its further life is taken – the decision for secondary education. After four years of primary school – except for six years in Berlin and Brandenburg – teachers, parents, and children decide on a secondary higher or lower education – usually divided into Gymnasium, Realschule, and Hauptschule in descending order. The Gymnasium constitutes the most advanced secondary education, preparing students for the university within 8 or 9 years. On an international comparison, the school segregation in Germany happens at an early stage – for instance, in Sweden and Denmark students visit the Grundskole until 9th or 10th grade.

With the teachers' and parents' decision on secondary education in Germany, they indirectly determine the further educational path of children – like the chance to attend the university and to get an executive job in the future. Starting at Gymnasium carries several opportunities for further education, while the transfer to a lower level school type usually implies the path of vocal education.

Anna first went to a private school that followed the Waldorf education with a collective learning environment until she transferred to a public Gymnasium in 7th grade. Even though she scored disastrous grades at first, she managed to stay in the higher educational level – with the help of her classmates and support of her teachers: "Once my class transfer was endangered, my schoolmates provided me with private teaching lessons, so I finally could make the step into the next class", she recalls. "And the teachers bent the rules a little bit because even though I didn't match the academic requirements, I helped to strengthen the social stability in class." Still, she changed schools several times before completing with her Abitur – the German higher education entrance certificate.

But the kind of inclusiveness that Anna has experienced in her school years is not the norm. The German education structure is far from promoting a diversity of social classes. Being born and raised in a working-class family has several drawbacks in the school system. The probability to attend a higher secondary education like the Gymnasium is dependent on the success in primary school and the subsequent final decision by parents and teachers.

The proficiency level depends on what French sociologist Raymond Boudon calls "primary effects in class differentials in education attainment": A lower cultural education, less support and infantile education by parents and a lower economic capital can affect the performance in school. A child's cultural education depends on the parent's intellect since children primarily learn through interaction with their parents in the first stage of their life. In comparison, children with higher social status are more likely to be well equipped with cultural education since parents with an academic background have better requirements to support their child than working-class families. The cultural knowledge about how to behave in school and society has a strong influence on academic success. Studies prove that children from working-class families have worse starting conditions than their peers from higher social classes – opening with a smaller vocabulary and less cognitive skills. Moreover, a child's educational performance is dependent on the academic assistance of its parents, as non-academic parents might have trouble to support their children when it comes to homework or further explanations for upcoming exams and tests. And a higher or lower economic capital can affect the spending on leisure activities as sports clubs and music lessons that further support the children's development. Therefore, it might occur evidently that children from lower classes seem disadvantaged.

Furthermore, according to Boudon, so-called "secondary effects" have an impact on the decision for or against higher secondary education – thus, if the child visits a Gymnasium, Realschule, Hauptschule or a comprehensive school (Gesamtschule). The decision of whether a child should attend a Gymnasium or not is never only based on its intelligence or performance, but also social status. Against the background of the teacher's recommendation for a secondary higher education that every child receives after primary school, infants from high-class families are advised for the Gymnasium 2,6 times more often as children from a working-class background, even if these kids equally scored in literacy tests – mirroring teachers' varying perception of children from different social classes. Furthermore, if children with an academic family background do not receive a recommendation for Gymnasium from their primary school teachers, their parents would mostly still try to transfer them through this school type.

Consciously or unconsciously, parents estimate the different aspects of the so-called "secondary effects". They evaluate the pressure by social contacts, the maintenance of social status as well as the costs of attending a Gymnasium. These differ broadly between the different upper and lower classes. While academic families would mostly expect their children to attend the higher educational path, the surroundings of working-class families do not necessarily have the same anticipations. The costs of attending a Gymnasium usually play a bigger role for working-class families than for academic ones. Lower class families generally tend to see more risks than benefits, since the change of future success is perceived lower while the entrance into the practical economy happens later after an academic career. Further, in case of a decision against the Gymnasium, the loss of status is lower if people in the social environment were not attending the Gymnasium themselves. A failure would entail the readjustment to a new school environment. Meanwhile, higher class families do not face considerable costs and rank a higher education as more important for the prospects of their child.

This framework also works the other way around – thus, the primary and secondary effects not only influence the lower class. While working-class children on a lower secondary school mostly take the same education as their parents had already been choosing, transfer to a lower secondary school would mean a loss of status for children from academic families as the upward permeability of the German school system is low and the employment outlook is highly dependent on the graduation certificate. Not taking the path of the Gymnasium, the entrance in tertiary education requires a sizeable effort and a longer education to be overcome. This has an influence on the later composition of university students: In 2016, 72 percent of the enrolled students in Germany had at least one parent with a university degree, professional school diploma or comparable. The remaining 28 percent came from working-class families. Experts call these phenomena „sticky floors" and „sticky ceilings" and with that describe that everyone stays in the social sphere that one is born and raised in.

At the Waldorf school with its alternative education concept, Anna did not feel the pressure to study hard for her vocabularies and she felt that occasionally this certain kick was missing to keep her motivated. With both of Anna's parents not having an academic education, it was sometimes hard for her to stay on track. Hence, the change to a public Gymnasium with a tighter grading scheme seemed to be the solution for continuing her education. "I believe that parents have an elementary role. However, this does not mean that parents with a low educational background generally have children that cannot make it into higher education than the parents themselves. There is a thin line with the parent's motivation: Of course, they can decide to push their child but at the same time this could also lead to traumata of the child if it feels too much pressure from home", says Anna. Her parents supported her in various other ways. Despite the family's limited economic means, she went to violin classes, had private lessons and was sent to a private school. Also, Anna underlines that her parents were always encouraging her in her ideas: "If I would have wanted to become an astronaut, they would have supported me in that dream." In her opinion, the belief and support from someone's childhood home are so much more important when it comes to personal development than the educational system alone.

The headmaster of a Gymnasium points in the same direction. She is convinced that every successful child has a person who stands behind it and supports it: "Also, teachers have to be engaged and give incentives by stimulating and stipulating the child's development."

Despite the apparent segregation within the German school system, there are also attempts for a shared learning environment. The number of lower secondary institutions – Hauptschule – has halved in the last ten years. Specifically, this school type was perceived as a "school for the rest" – the kids who did not make it into a Gymnasium or Realschule throughout the selection process. Often the children that attend the Hauptschule are most disadvantaged in terms of their familiar background and the parent's professional education. Therefore, in the course of school system reforms, various states disestablished this secondary school type in favor of a comprehensive school (Gesamtschule) that offers all levels of education. With this development, efforts are made to increase the permeability between the school levels.

Also, Anna is convinced of the possible advantages of a comprehensive school: "I believe that, in comparison, comprehensive schools can lead to higher diversity and acceptance within the society." Even though she struggled with the education system, her winding way through the "school jungle" finally resolved in life and a job that she loves. The young woman had to fight for her way up the social ladder, but she succeeded with the help of friends and family. After she graduated from Gymnasium, she changed her study subjects a few times. Anna could not manage to study in the theoretical focus of her pedagogics studies and thus started an apprenticeship and academic studies in photography in 2010 – first in Germany and then in London. Today, she is a busy photographer with a tight schedule.

Nonetheless, the educational system in Germany generally contains high barriers – especially for children with working-class backgrounds. With the early segregation, the system sorts out children who do not hold the required skills after four years of school. But the earlier a segregation takes place, the less time is given to children to develop their interests. However, not everyone sees positive aspects with later segregation. Waltraud Erndl, press officer at the German Association of Teachers at Secondary Schools (VDR – Verband Deutscher Realschullehrer) underlines that early segregation after primary school comes with extensive benefits. Children's skills and abilities should be stimulated individually as early as possible, but longer collective learning could not fulfil these individual prerequisites. On the contrary, studies by German education scientist Prof. Dr. Martin Neugebauer prove that the error rate – which is the sorting out of smart children after primary school – is especially high with early segregation. Therefore, it can be assumed that more children from lower classes would succeed in the highest level of secondary education if the segregation took place later or if the education system would provide more upward permeability.

Additionally, going to a comprehensive school with different level classes could lead to a better understanding of the different groups in society. Even though children might follow different course levels – depending on their proficiency level – they still pursue their education in a collective environment where they learn to understand how to support each other – no matter the social background. But, while other school types – and especially the Gymnasium – exist next to the comprehensive school, parents from higher class families will continue to send their children to the most reputable school. Thus, the mixture of society faces an ongoing threat.

Still, way too many children from working-class families do not succeed in stepping out of their social class. To counterbalance against this social segregation and to help with a better intermixture of students from different social backgrounds, the government would have to introduce a change within the school system in favor of an extended period of collective learning in primary school and later segregation. At least – as the mentioned facts underline – this is one of the many striking factors that can influence the level of social mobility in a country. The German administration should thus dare to take a look abroad to countries with flexible social mobility – like Sweden or Denmark. More than ever, Germany needs a readjustment of its antiquated school structures and a generalization of educational laws throughout the whole country.

Also, Anna supports a change within the educational system: "If you do not have the required skills, you get rejected from the system at a way too early stage. And once being sorted out, it is really difficult to get rid of this stigma." Thus, she does not think that the school system provides the same chances and possibilities for everyone. Anna's brother is amongst them who had to experience the restraints through education as with his lower secondary degree – a so-called Hauptschulabschluss –, he could not even apply for vocational training at the garbage disposal. "However, my brother is not stupid, but he simply has other qualities and he did not learn how to handle all this information that one is confronted within school. He simply did not have the time and resources to stay in the educational system as long as I did."